SANATHA DHARMA VISHAYALU PART-1

Sanatana dharma ,

otherwise also called as Hindu Dharma is being followed in various yugas. Dharma and how to adopt in practical is limited to human race only. Brahmins by birth and living conditions are adopted to follow strictly the sanatana dharma. Brahmin has to live and follow the life for others only and not for themselves. In ancient days the veda adhyayana is imposed for all the three varnas viz., bramha, kshatriya and vaisya. But in the days to come due to livelihood pattern, kshatriya and vaisya catagories slowly withdrawn themselves from veda adhyayana. Though they are eligible for adhyayana, their reluctance made them to loose the adhyayana status. Hence it has become prime importance for the Brahmin to study the Vedas and follow for himself and for the sake of others. But, it is pity to observe that today, many of the Brahmin families who wanted to live a luxurious way of life and enjoy the facilities on par with others, are neglecting the adhyayana of veda but also totally restrained to follow any of the sanatana dharma imposed to them.

AUTHORITY FOR DHARMA IS VEDA.

It is also termed as SRUTI. The Srutis are called the Vedas, or the Amnaya. The Hindus have received their religion through hearing (karna), the Vedas. These are direct intuitional revelations and are held to be Apaurusheya or entirely superhuman, without any author in particular. The Veda is the glorious pride of the Hindus, nay, of the whole world! The term Veda comes from the root Vid, means know.

The word Veda means knowledge.
When it is applied to scripture, it signifies a book of knowledge.
The Vedas are the foundational scriptures of the Hindus.
The Veda is the source of the other five sets of scriptures, why, even of the secular and the materialistic. The Veda is the storehouse of Indian wisdom and is a memorable glory which man can never forget till eternity.The Vedas are the eternal truths revealed by God to the great Rishis . The word Rishi means a seer, from DRIS(drushti), to see. The Rishi is the Mantra-Drashta, a seer of Mantra or thought. The thought was not his own. The Rishis saw the truths or heard them.

Therefore, the Vedas are what are heard (Sruti). The Rishi did not write. He did not create it out of his mind. He was the seer of thought which existed already. He was only the spiritual discoverer of the thought. He is not the inventor of the Veda.The Vedas represent the spiritual experiences of the Rishis of yore. The Rishi is only a medium or an agent to transmit to people the intuitional experiences which he received. The truths of the Vedas are revelations. All the other religions of the world claim their authority as being delivered by special messengers of God to certain persons, but the Vedas do not owe their authority to any one. They are themselves the authority as they are eternal, as they are the Knowledge of the Lord.Lord Brahma, the Creator, imparted the divine knowledge to the Rishis or seers. The Rishis disseminated the knowledge. The Vedic Rishis were great realised persons (souls) who had direct intuitive perception of Brahman or the Truth. They were inspired teachers. They built a simple, grand and perfect system of religion and philosophy from which the founders and teachers of all other religions have drawn their inspiration. The Vedas are the oldest books in the library of man. The truths contained in all religions are derived from the Vedas and are ultimately traceable to the Vedas. The Vedas are the fountain-head of religion. The Vedas are the ultimate source to which all religious knowledge can be traced. Religion is of divine origin. It was revealed by God to man in the earliest times. It is embodied in the Vedas.The Vedas are eternal without beginning or end. An ignorant man may say how a book can be without beginning or end. . Vedas came out of the breath of the Lord. They are the words of God. The Vedas are not the utterances of persons. They are not the composition of any human mind. They were never written, never created. They are eternal and impersonal. The date of the Vedas has never been fixed. It can never be fixed. Vedas are eternal spiritual Truths. Vedas are an embodiment of divine knowledge. The books may be destroyed, but the knowledge cannot be destroyed. Knowledge is eternal. In that sense, the Vedas are eternal.
The Four Vedas And Their Sub Divisions:The Veda is divided into four great books:1. The Rig-Vedam.
2. The Yajur-Vedam.
3. The Sama-Vedam.
4. The Atharva-Vedam.

The Yajur-Vedam is again divided into two parts:
1. The Sukla Yajur-Vedam.
2. The Krishna Yajur-Vedam.

The Krishna or the Tattiriya is the older form and the Sukla or Vajasaneya is a later revelation to Sage Yajnavalkya from the Sun-God.

The Rig-Vedam is divided into twenty-one sections, the Yajur-Vedam into one hundred and nine sections, the Sama-Vedam into one thousand sections and Atharva-Vedam into fifty sections.

In all, the whole Veda is thus divided into one thousand one hundred and eighty recensions.

Each Vedam consists of four parts:
1. The Mantra-Samhitas or hymns.
2. The Brahmanas or explanations of Mantras or rituals.
3. The Aranyakas (philosophical interpretations of the rituals).
4. The Upanishads (The essence or the knowledge portion of the Vedas).

The division of the Vedas into four parts is to suit the four stages in a man’s life.

The Mantra-Samhitas are hymns in praise of the Vedic God for attaining material prosperity here and happiness hereafter. They are metrical poems comprising prayers, hymns and incantations addressed to various deities, both subjective and objective. The Mantra portion of the Vedas is useful for the Brahmacharins (celibate; one who belongs to the first of the four Asramas or orders of life; one who lives in purity and studies the Vedam ; the first 25 years of life).

The Brahmana portions a guide for people to perform sacrificial rites. They are prose explanations of the method of using the Mantras in the Yajna or the sacrifice. The Brahmana portion is suitable for the householder (Grihastha; one who belongs to the second of the four Asramas or orders of life; from 25 to 50 years of age).

The Aranyakas are the forest books, the mystical sylvan texts which give philosophical interpretations of the Rituals. The Aranyakas are intended for the Vanaprasthas or hermits who prepare themselves for taking Sannyasa. (Vanaprastha = one who leads the third stage of life; from 50 to 75 years of age).

The Upanishads are the most important portion of the Vedas. The Upanishads contain the essence or the knowledge portion of the Vedas. The philosophy of the Upanishads is sublime, profound, lofty an soul-stirring. The Upanishads speak of the identity of the individual soul and the Supreme Soul(jeevatma and paramatma). They reveal the most subtle and deep spiritual truths. The Upanishads are useful for the Sannyasins. (Sannyasi or Sannyasin = a monk; one who has embraced the life of complete renunciation ; one belonging to the fourth or the highest stage of life; from 75 to 100 years of age).

[Note: Although the division of the Vedas into four parts is to suit the four stages in a man’s life, the study of the four Vedas is done by Brahmacharins or celibate students and the knowledge thus acquired serves as the basis of the goal of life through all the four stages of life. The studies of the Vedas continue throughout one’s life. ( for Dharma, Artha, Kama & Moksha). Thus the knowledge of the Upanishads is not to be confined to the last stage of life. The mind of the Sannyasin is intensely focussed upon the teachings of the Upanishads.]

The subject matter of the whole Veda is divided into:

1. Karma-Kanda
2. Upasana-Kanda
3. Jnana-Kanda.

The Karma-Kanda or Ritualistic Section deals with various sacrifices and rituals.
The Upasana-Kanda or Worship-Section deals with various kinds of worship or meditation.
The Jana-Kanda or Knowledge-Section deals with the highest knowledge of Nirguna Brahman. (Nirguna = without attributes or forms. Brahman = the Supreme Reality).

The Mantras and the Brahmanas constitute Karma-Kanda (rituals).
The Aranyakas constitute Upasana-Kanda (worship).
The Upanishads constitute Jnana-Kanda (knowledge).
We can see how our scriptures are made available for our use.VEDAS: The holy scriptures of India, as is well known, consist of the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda, and the exegetical texts, the Vedangas which are six viz., Siksha, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Jyotisha and Kalpa; and their four supplements viz., Purana, Nyaya, Mimamsa and Dharma Sastra.

UPANISHADS: Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Kaushitaki, and Svetasvatara and Maitrayani (The twelve principal Upanishads) VEDANGAS: The Vedangas (limbs of the Vedas) are six – Siksha (phonetics), Kalpa (Pronunciations and the usage of the Mantras), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology of words), Chandas (prosody),and Jyotisha (astrology and astronomy).

PURANAS : Puranas are eighteen in number.
1.Vishnu Purana,
2.Naradiya Purana,
3.Srimad Bhagavata Purana,
4.Garuda (Suparna) Purana,
5.Padma Purana,
6.Varah Purana,
7.Brahma Purana,
8.Brahmanda Purana,
9.Brahma Vaivarta Purana,
10.Markandeya Purana,
11.Bhavishya Purana,
12.Vamana Purana,
13.Matsya Purana,
14.Kurma Purana,
15.Linga Purana,
16.Siva Purana,
17.Skanda Purana and
18.Agni Purana.

Of these,

six are Sattvic Puranas and glorify Vishnu;
Six are Rajasic Puranas and glorify Brahma;
six are Tamasic Puranas and glorify Siva.NYAYA (Logic) VAISHESHAKA (also logic)

MIMASA (Mimamsa Sastra is of two kinds: the Karma or actions(or Poorva) Mimamsa and Sharirika (or Uttara) Mimamsa or Vedanta or knowledge)

BRAMHA SUTRAS [The object of Mimamsa Sastra (including Brahma Sutras) is to explain the process of realising the identity of Jiva (individual soul) with Brahman (Supreme Reality)]SANKHYA (The goal of life according to this Sastra is to get absolute freedom from the three kinds of miseries) YOGA(The Yoga system explains the practical side of Sankhya. Sage Patanjali is the author of the text on this branch. Control of Character by control of body, mind (emotions), intellect etc., forms the subject matter of the eight-fold steps taught in this Sastra. It is also known as Raja-Yoga.)DHARMA SASTRAS (These are in the nature of texts prescribing or codifying social and religious norms during different stages of evolution of our society.Dharma Sastras or Smritis, are the fourth supplementary Anga of the Vedas. A number of Smritis are known to exist.Some of them are the Manusmriti, Vishnu, Angirasa, Daksha, Shatatapa, Gautama, Yagnavalkya, Yama, Vasistha, Samvarta, Parasara, Shanka etc.Although popularly known as epics, the Ramayana of Valmiki and the Mahabharata of Vyasa may be classified under the head Dharma Sastras for the purpose of this survey. The famous Bhagavad Gita is a portion of the Mahabharata.) THE UPA VEDAMS (They are four in number. Ayurveda, Dhanurveda, Gandharva-Veda and Artha Sastra.Ayurveda Ayurveda,is the science of life and health, including medicine. Dhanur Veda is the science of archery. Gandharva Veda deals with the science of music and dance.Arthasastra dealing with the acquisition of material things like wealth by righteous means. Under this head, Nitisastra, Shilpasastra, the sixty-four Kalas and also other physical and metaphysical subjects are included.

Two special items: Pashupata Yoga. Here, the Jiva or effect is called Pashu and God or Karana, Pashupati.Panchratra Tantra deals with the worship of Vishnu. THE KAALASThe first that calls for mention is the encyclopaedic Sastra which goes by the name of Akshara-laksha. All kinds (325 to be exact) of mathematics including modern geometry, algebra, trigonometry, physics or applied mathematics; minerology, hydels; the method of measuring air, heat and even electricity; geography etc.are said to have been treated.

The next science of importance is Sabda Sastra. It deals with sounds, echoes of moving and non-moving objects in creation. It also deals in five chapters with capturing or mechanically reproducing sounds, measuring their pitch, velocity, etc.Lakshana Sastra, or the science of determining the sex in animate and inanimate creation.

Shilpa Sastra consists of 22 chapters. 307 varieties of Shilpas including 11 types of constructions like temples, palaces, halls etc., Supa-Sastra deals with the science of cooking.

Malinee Sastra consists of flower arrangementsThe science of Kala or Time was written by Lord Karttikeya. Its division into definite periods, their classification into auspicious and inauspicious moments
1.Palmistry
2.Science of Alchemy
3.Science of Poisons
4.Fine Arts
5.Science of Gymnastics
5.Parakaya Pravesha i.e., entering into one body from another bodyscience of horses and ElephantsRatna Pariksha or testing of gems (precious stones). His analysis shows 24 characteristics of gems Mahendrajala or the science of magic.

Artha Sastra consisting of three chapters, in which he teaches 82 ways of earning money, even while leading a righteous life.Shakti Tantra consisting of eight chapters in which Mulaprakriti, Maya etc., and 64 kinds of external Shaktis of bodies like those of the Sun, Moon and Air, Fire etc., are explainedscience called Soudamini Kala by which all phenomena could be attracted through shadows and even ideas.

In a work on Yantras by Bharadwaja, he explains about 339 types of vehicles useful in travelling on land, 783 kinds of boats and ships to be used on water and 101 varieties of airships.

VEDIC SAKHAS AND HOW IT DECENDED. The Vedic literature that has come down to our times is attached to various traditional schools of recitation and ritual called the ‘shakhas’. All the four Vedas have more than one shakha extant. In the past, the number of shakhas studied was many times more.

According to the Mahabhasya of Patanjali, there were 21 shakhas of Rigveda, 9 of Atharvaveda, 101 of Yajurveda (86 of Krishna Yajurveda and 15 of Shukla Yajurveda, according to later authorities) and a 1000 varieties of chanting of Samaveda. Maybe, the number 1000 for the Samaveda merely refers to ‘ ananta’. Nevertheless, although only 20 or so Shakhas of the Vedas are extant now, we do possess names of most of the lost Shakhas of the Rigveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. Fragments of many of the lost shakhas are also available as quotations in ancient works. For the Samaveda, we do not have more than 40 names extant.

Two different Vedic shakhas might share one or more texts amongst themselves. Conversely, the distinction between two shakhas of the same Veda might result from the use of a different Samhita text, and/or a different Brahmana text, and/or different Kalpasutra text and so on. For e.g., the Baudhayana and the Apastamba shakhas use the same Taittiriya Brahmana, Taittiriya Samhita and Taittiriya Aranyaka but follow different Kalpasutras. On the other hand, the Shankhayana and the Kaushitaka shakhas use the same Samhita and Shrauta Sutra but their Brahmanas have slightly different readings and their Grhyasutras are quite different.

A group or a community of people who study a particular shakha in its entirety (Samhita + Brahmana + Aranyaka + Kalpasutra + any additional texts) and perform its ritual constitute a ‘sutra’. For instance, Brahmins who study the Taittiriya Samhita/Brahmana/Aranyaka together with the Kalpasutra of Apastamba say - “I follow the Apastamba sutra. In certain cases, we have instances of ‘mixed shakhas’. For instance, the followers of Shakala shakha have adopted the Kalpasutra of Ashvalayana. The Ashvalayana shakha, which had the now well-known Ashvalayana Sutra, has in turn lost oral traditions of its Samhita. Likewise, the Kaushitakins of Kerala often use the Samhita of Shakalas.

The various shakhas of the Vedas were, at one time, spread throughout South Asia. Their geographical location has not been constant down the ages, as communities of Brahmins professing a particular shakha migrated from one part of India to the other, or adopted another shakha when it became impossible for them to sustain the tradition of their own shakhas.

It is quite certain however, that the tradition of recitation of the Vedic texts originated in north India, and this region was the area where almost all the shakhas originally arose. From various sources, we can determine the following geographical distribution of Vedic Shakhas at various intervals of times, and their present state of survival :-

• Shakala rig veda : Thrives in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, and Tamil Nadu and to some extent in Uttar Pradesh. Might have existed in Punjab. Nambudiris of Kerala recite even the Brahmana and Aranyaka with accents. Accented manuscripts of Brahmana and Aranyaka are available to this day.

• Shankhayana Rigveda: Gujarat and parts of Rajasthan and Maharashtra. Oral tradition extinct, only manuscripts of Samhita are extant. Ritual lives in a very fragmentary condition

• Bashkala rig veda: Claims have been made about its existence in Kerala, Rajasthan, Bengal and Assam as a living tradition, but have never been verified. The Samhita exists in manuscript. Nambudiris of Kerala are said to follow this Shakha of RV as far as the Samhita is concerned but studies of their oral tradition do not seem to bear this out.

• Ashvalayana rig veda: Manuscripts of the Samhita have been found in Kashmir, Maharashtra (Ahmadnagar) and Patna (Bihar). In parts of central and eastern India, Shakala RV texts are often attributed to Ashvalayana. For instance, the Aitareya Brahman is often called Ashvalayana Brahmana in West Bengal. Oral traditions extinct although the followers of Shakala Shakha in Maharashtra often term themselves as Ashvalayanas because they follow the Kalpasutra (Shrautasutra + Grhyasutra) of Ashvalayana.

• Paingi rig veda: Exited in Tamil Nadu, in and around Andavan. Oral traditions lost but Brahmana texts rumored to exist.

• Mandukeya rig veda: Magadha and eastern and central Uttar Pradesh. Possibly lower Himalayas in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. No text or oral tradition extant although the Brhaddevata and Rigvidhana might belong to it.

• Shaunakiya atharva veda: Gujarat, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Coastal Andhra Pradesh, Avadh region in Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh. Only Gujarat has maintained the oral traditions, and the shakha has been resuscitated in recent times in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and in Andhra Pradesh.

• Staudayana atharva veda: According to Majjhima Nikaya, followers of this shakha lived in Koshala (central and eastern Uttar Pradesh). The shakha is completely lost.

• Paippalada atharva veda: Followers are currently found in parts of Orissa and adjacent areas of Bihar and West Bengal and recite the Samhita in ekasruti (monotone syllable). Epigraphic and literary evidence shows that they once thrived in Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, and parts of Gujarat, East Bengal and in Tamil Nadu as well.

• Devadarshi atharva veda: According to literary evidence, followers of this Shakha once lived in coastal Andhra Pradesh. Other AV shakhas said to have been prevalent in that region were Shaulkayani and Munjakeshi. The shakha is completely lost.

• Charanavaidya and Jajala atharva veda: Perhaps existed in Gujarat, Central India and adjacent parts of Rajasthan. According to the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, the Samhita of the Charanavaidya shakha had 6026 mantras.

• Mauda atharva veda: According to some scholars, they existed in Kashmir

• Madhyandina yajur veda: Currently found all over North India- Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and even Maharashtra (up to Nashik), West Bengal, Assam, Nepal. Along with Taittiriya Yajurveda, it is the most prevalent Vedic shakha. Followers of this school were found in Sindh (Pakistan) in the 19th century but became extinct after Hindus were ethnically cleansed by the Muslim majority after 1947.
• Kanva yajur veda Currently found in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh. In Orissa, the followers of this shakha follow a slightly different text. Epigraphic evidence shows that they were once present all over India, as far as Himachal Pradesh and possibly in Nepal. • Charaka yajur veda: Interior Maharashtra, adjacent parts of Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh. Followers of this shakha now follow the Maitrayani YV shakha, having lost their own texts.
• Maitrayani yajur veda: In Morvi (Gujarat), parts of Maharashtra (Naskik/Bhadgaon, Nandurbar, Dhule). Earlier, they were spread all the way east up to Allahabad and extended into Rajasthan and possibly into Sindh.
• Kathaka yajur veda The oral traditions became extinct possibly a few decades ago. They were found in central and eastern Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, possibly west Punjab and NWFP. In later times, they got restricted to Kashmir, where all their extant manuscripts have been unearthed. Recently, the entire Hindu minority was cleansed from the Kashmir valley by Islamists, and so the shakha might be deemed extinct completely now.
• Charayaniya Katha yajur veda: Existed in Kashmir.
• Kapisthala Katha yajur veda: Found in West Punjab around the time of the invasion of Alexander. Also in parts of Gujarat. Only a fragmentary Samhita and Grhyasutra text exist, and followers of this shakha are said to exist at the mouths of Narmada and Tapi rivers in Gujarat.
• Jabala yajur veda: Central India, around the Narmada region. In Maharashtra, there still exist Shukla-Yajurvedin Brahmins who call themselves ‘Jabala Brahmins’, but there is no knowledge of the existence of any texts of this shakha.
• Taittiriya yajur veda: Buddhist texts and some versions of Ramayana attest their presence in the Gangetic plains but currently they are found all over Southern India. The Taittiriyas are themselves divided into numerous sub-schools. Among these, the followers of Baudhayana and Apastamba were found all over South India (including Maharashtra), while the Hiranyakeshins were found mainly in Konkan and Western Maharashtra. The Vaikhanasas have a more eastern presence- around Tirupati and Chennai. The Vadhulas are present currently in Kerala and earlier in adjacent parts of Tamil Nadu. The Agniveshyas, a subdivision of the Vadhula immigrants from Malabar, are found around Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu. The Apastamba, Hiranyakeshin, Vaikhanasa and Baudhayana schools have survived with all their texts intact. The Vadhulas survive, with most of their texts while the Bharadvajas and Agniveshyas are practically extinct as a living tradition although their fragmentary/dilapidated texts survive.
• Kauthuma sama veda: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu (tradition revived with the help of Brahmins from Poona), Kerala, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar (tradition revived a century ago), West Bengal (tradition has been revived recently). There are numerous varieties of Kauthuma chanting. This shakha is the most vibrant tradition of Samaveda.
• Ranayaniya sama veda: Orissa (manuscripts available, status of oral tradition not known), Maharashtra, Karnataka (the Havyak <you mean="" havik=""> community for instance), Uttar Pradesh (till recently in Bahraich and Mathura), Rajasthan (till recently in Jaipur). The existence of this shakha was endangered till recently, but it has been strengthened with the help of institutions like the Kanchi Kamakoti Matham.</you>
• Jaiminiya/Talavakara sama veda: Two distinct sub streams- the Namudiri recitations in Central Kerala, and the recitations of Tamil Nadu Brahmins in districts adjacent to Kerala and in and around Srirangam. The survival of these schools is endangered.
• Shatyayaniya sama veda: Said to have been prevalent in Tamil Nadu and parts of North India. The shakha is no longer extant.
• Gautama sama veda: Said to have been prevalent in Tamil Nadu and in Andhra Pradesh till the 17th cent. C.E. Many followers of the Kauthuma school in Andhra Pradesh still call themselves ‘Gautamas’.
• Bhallavi sama veda: Said to have been prevalent in Karnataka and parts of North India.
• Other Shakhas of yajur veda: A text called ‘Yajurvedavriksha’ gives the geographical distribution of more than 100 Shakhas of Yajurveda. This description is being left out for brevity.

Extant Vedic Texts

The Vedic texts were traditionally transmitted orally (or at least predominantly without the aid of manuscripts, which might have been used sparingly as memory aids). This was essential because the texts were ‘accented’, or in other words the different words or letters therein were recited according to different pitch/tones. Very elaborate mnemonic devices were developed to preserve the texts with great fidelity, and harsh divine vengeance and evil repercussions were promised to those who deformed or mutilated the text in any manner. As a result, several Vedic texts were indeed transmitted over several millennia with utmost fidelity, together with accent. The texts that are used for aiding the memorization and recitation of the Vedas with utmost fidelity, are called ‘Lakshana Granthas’. These texts include Padapathas, Ghanapathas, Kramapatha and other Vikrtis or modifications of the root text, phonetic treatises like Sikshas and Pratisakhyas and so on.

In some cases however, the accents were lost with time and the texts had to be recited without the Vedic accents. For instance, the Brahmanas of the Samaveda lost their accents even as early as the time of Kumarila Bhatta (7th century C.E.). Similarly, the Paippalada Samhita is recited by its followers today without the Vedic accents (i.e., in ekasruti).

The Rigveda Samhita:  This is the oldest Vedic text, as also the largest. It comprises of 10552 mantras in 1028 hymns (=Suktas). The hymns are divided amongst 10 books called the ‘mandalas’. Mandala 9 has 114 hymns address to Soma. Mandalas 1 and 10 are considered later additions, for most part.  The Rigveda Samhita is often also divided into 8 parts called ‘Ashtakas’ which are further divided into 8 chapters each. Thus, there are 64 chapters according to this classification, which is later than the Mandala scheme. .  The hymns are altogether attributed to 407 Rishis, or Sages, of which 21 are women Sages ( = Rishika). The Sages belong, in general, to 10 families, each of which has a special hymn (=Apri Sukta) associated with them. Mandalas 2-8 are family mandalas since each of these mandalas contains hymns predominantly from 1 major family of Vedic rishis. These families subsequently gave rise to most of the Brahmin communities of the Hindu society. Mandala 2 is associated with Gritsamadas, Mandala 3 is associated with Vishvamitra and his lineage, 4 with Vamadeva and related Rishis, 5 with Atri, 6 with Bharadvaja, 7 with Vasistha. Mandala 8 has numerous hymns by Kanva while Mandala 9 has several hymns by Kashyapa Rishis. The mantras are composed in 7 major and dozens of minor prosodic meters.

Yajurveda Samhitas:  As stated earlier, the Yajurveda has two main divisions – Shukla Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda. In the former, the mantra and Brahmana portions are collected in separate texts, whereas in the later, the two portions are found interspersed.  The extant Shukla Yajurveda Samhitas are Madhyandina and Kanva. The extant Krishna Yajurveda Samhitas are Kathaka, Maitrayaniya, Taittiriya (also called ‘Apastamba’ Samhita), Kapishthala (fragmentary) and possibly Charaka. Of the extant Yajurveda Samhitas, the two major ones currently are the Madhyandina and the Taittiriya.  The great sage Yajnavalkya is said to have collected and edited the Ur-Shukla Yajurveda Samhita, called the Vajasneyi Samhita. The Madhyandina Samhita comprises of 1975 kandikas or 3988 mantras (the prose kandikas are split up into several mantras) arranged into 40 chapters according to the order of performance of Vedic sacrifices. All but the last chapter (which is called the Ishavasya Upanishad) are employed in the Vedic ritual. The Yajurveda is largely prose, with about 700 verse mantras, most of which are directly borrowed from the Rigveda. The Yajurveda therefore is a liturgical text, but also contains sacrificial formulas to serve the purpose of ceremonial religion (yaju is derived from the root “yaj” – to sacrifice). Coming to the Madhyandina Samhita specifically,
• Chapters 1-2 deal with Darsapurnamasa rites,
• Chapter 3 with sacrifices performed in the morning and the evenings, sacrifices performed every four months at the start of the three seasons
• Chapters 4-8 with Soma sacrifices
• Chapters 9-10 with Rajasuya and Vajapeya
• Chapters 11-18 with construction of altars for yajnas
• Chapters 19-31 with Sautramani rite
• Chapters 22-25 with the Ashvamedha
• Chapters 26-29 give material supplementary to earlier chapters
• Chapters 30-39 contain mantras for novel and unique rites like the Purushamedha, Sarvamedha, Pitrmedha and Pravargya
• Chapter 40 is the Isavasya Upanishad Very popular in South India, the Taittiriya Samhita deals with detailed descriptions of sacrifices like Agnishtoma, Jyotishtoma, Vajapeya, Rajasuya, etc It is divided into 7 kandas which are further divided into 5-8 Prapathakas each. The Taittiriya Brahmana, the Taittiriya Aranyaka and the Taittiriya Upanishad are associated with this Samhita. In the Yajur Veda, Vishnu becomes more important. Shiva is also mentioned. Prajapati, the creator of the world, is identified with Vishvakarman. Brahman comes to signify the creative principle of the world. In general, the contents of this Samhita parallel the Shukla Yajurveda Samhitas although exotic and special rites like the Purushamedha are absent here.


The Samaveda Samhitas and Melodies:  It is purely a liturgical collection that comprises of 1875 Rks, of which all but 75 Rks are traceable to the published Shakala Samhita of the Rigveda. The rest are all said to occur in the Shankhayana Samhita of the Rigveda. All these verses are set to melodies, called the Samans. The origins of Indian classical music lies in the Sama Veda.  The Samhita is divided into two broad divisions- Purvarchika, on which the Gramageya and the Aranyaka samans are set, and the Uttararchika, on which the Uha and the Uhya chants are set. The ganas (=samans) of Gramageya and Aranyageya form the basic collection called the Prakritigana or the archetypes of ganas, to which the Uttaragana based on the Uttararchika is adapted. The marked difference between the melodies of Purvarchika and Uttararchika is that the former is constituted on a single verse basis while the latter on units of three verses. The Uttaragana is divided into two sections known as the Uha and the Uhya or Rahasya: the first is adapted to the Gramageya while the second to Aranyageya. Thus the Uttaragana closely follows the Purvagana in its structure, divisions and notations including the melodic notes. While Purvagana forms part of the Swadhyaya or daily recitations, like the Samhitas, which are considered to be apaurusheya, meaning thereby that they were not composed by the Rishis but revealed to them by Brahma, whereas the Uttaragana was believed to have been composed by the acharyas for liturgical purposes by adapting them to the Purvagana. Hence, they are called Uhaganas, adapted melodies. The Uha and Uhya ganas of Uttararchika are divided into seven divisions namely Dasharatra, Samvatsara, Ekaha, Ahina, Sattra, Kshudra and Prayaschitta, clearly indicating the class of sacrifices at which they are generally executed. The Ranayaniya Samhita is not published yet but appears to be materially identical to the Kauthuma Sahmita, although its Samans are quite different.  The root text of the Jaiminiyas, on which their melodies are based, is the Jaiminiya Archika Samhita. This text runs parellel to the Kauthuma Samhita of Samaveda, available in easily accessible editions. The Samhita has approximately 1650 mantras and its Saman tradition is quite different from the main Kauthuma tradition. The Jaiminiya chants can be subdivided into 3 variations:
1. The Nambudiri chants,
• Thanjavur/Thiruchi districts in Tamil Nadu
• Tirunalveli district and the area close to Palaghat (Kerala) in Tamil Nadu


Atharvaveda Samhita:  It is often said that the Atharva Angirasa was originally not given the status of a Veda, but seems to have been later elevated to the position. The main theme of the Atharva Veda is cure for diseases, rites for prolonging life and fulfillment of one’s desires, statecraft, penances, magic, charms, spells and sorcery. While the Gods of the Rg Veda are approached with love, the Gods of the Atharva Veda are approached with cringing fear and favor is curried to ward off their wrath. Homage is paid to them to abstain from doing harm. Sophisticated literary style and high metaphysical ideas mark this Veda. The two extant Samhitas of Atharvaveda are Shaunakiya and Paippalada.  The former has 5977 mantras arranged in 20 books called ‘kandas’ while the latter has approximately 7950 mantras arranged in as many kandas.  This Veda offers a better insight into the actual culture and life of the Vedic society, because of its significant ‘popular’ content – hymns connected with wedding, agriculture, battle, medicine, domestic ceremonies, coronation and so on. Significantly, dozens of hymns are also devoted to Hindu spirituality, and are often at par with the Upanishads.

The Atharvaveda has numerous names –
• Bhrgvangirasa Veda – because of association with Bhrigus and Angirases
• Atharvangirasa Veda – Because of association with Atharvana and Angirasa priests, and because of a dual nature (sorcery as well as ‘shanti-pushti’ rites)
• Kshatraveda – because it has several hymns dealing with war, rites of coronation and so on.
• Brahmaveda – because it has several hymns dealing with spirituality.